Lesson 1

Introduction

Welcome to Psyc 4/Chld 4, Child Growth and Development. Soon we will explore the intricacies of the beginning of life, childhood, and end with that wonderful (and sometimes not-so-wonderful) transition into adulthood. This course will explore many aspects of this rapid developmental period, including conception and birth, the infant and toddler stage (called The First 2 Years), the stages where a child?s "job" is to play (called The Play Years), the stages where intellectual and social development supersede physical development for a while (called The School Years) and the stages where the child becomes an adult (called Adolescence). We will look at each of these four stages from three perspectives: Biological development (called Biosocial), intelligence and thought-process development (called Cognitive) and Psychological development (called Psychosocial).

Stages: 

The First 2 Years (Birth to 2 years old) 

The Play Years (2 years to 6 years) 

The School Years (6 years to 12 years) 

Adolescence (12 years to adult)

Perspectives: 

Biosocial, Cognitive, Psychosocial

I expect to provide a combination of theory and practicality in these lectures. You will see a pattern where I will teach a concept, then follow with an example. Forgive me if many examples are from my own, personal experience, but I feel the best way to illustrate a concept or theory is to provide a real-life example that you can relate to: that you can actually "see." Many questions people have about behavior, whether the behavior is that of a child, adult, or adolescent, can be answered when one understands the process of development. Have you heard (or used) the command, "Act your age!" Well, with children and adolescents, often they are! I would also encourage you to find your own real-life examples of the theories and concepts being taught. You can always go back to the book, or another source to get the concepts that will be taught, but as you learn to relate these ideas to your own life and possibly even use them, you will find true learning taking place.

Textbook

Stop for a minute now, and take a look at your book. You may have already thumbed through it, but look again. First of all, on the first Table of Contents page, the chapters are broken down into stages and perspectives, as listed above. This helps you to separate each of the perspectives in each of the stages, while allowing you to compare some of the similarities in each developmental stage.

During your reading, be sure to pay attention to the observational quizzes in each chapter (in the margins). Later in the semester, you will be observing a young child and noting your observations. Learning to observe is an important tool for many areas of life. These observational quizzes will help sharpen your observational skills. Try to observe as much as you can using all three perspectives before looking at the answer on the next page. You may be surprised at what you missed!!! (I was!)

What is Developmental Psychology?

The field of psychology is a broad one. It encompasses behavior, feelings, thoughts, and even some biological aspects. Psychologists focus on specific problems, social issues, marketing (using psychology to sell you and your children products), research, understanding criminals, dealing with trauma, understanding purpose in life, accepting death and loss, and many, many other issues. The field of psychology extends into the medical profession, the biological and anatomical sciences, encompasses history and philosophy, sociology, technology (computers and the Internet, for example), is used by law enforcement, major corporations, and employees of the government. If you can name a field of employment or study, psychology can be used in that field. In fact, there have even been recent studies and information on "pet" psychology, and an upsurge in the profession of "pet psychology." For example, did you know that some psychologists believe that pets can suffer from separation anxiety? Whether or not you accept certain research and findings will be up to you, once you have studied more about the issue.

In this course we will focus on one aspect of psychology - the complete development of infants, children, and adolescents. Developmental psychology looks into such questions as:

- What is normal or not normal for children at certain ages?

- What can parents expect from children at certain ages?

- What type of discipline works best with children at certain ages?

- Why do children do ________ at certain ages?

Note that all of the example questions focus on ages. This is what developmental psychology is about. This is how development is measured in our society - by chronological age. All other aspects of development are compared to the chronological age. (If a child starts walking at 11 months old, is that child walking early? Is a child late if he or she walks at 15 months? How about at 8 months?) Notice how the developmental "milemarker" - walking - is considered normal, or not, based on the chronological age. Most children begin walking between 10 months and 14 months with an average of 12 months, and this range is considered "normal." Eight months is early, and 16 months is late (see pgs. 151 and 153 of the textbook); and although neither an early walker nor a late one is, by itself, a cause of special concern, both can bring their fair share of problems and anxiety.

(some examples)

Consider the 8-month-old walker: too young to cognitively understand the dangers of this new height, yet mobile enough to be at the stove within 4 seconds. This "infant" is not yet aware of the danger of stairs, yet mobile enough to walk straight toward them, and probably unable to stop soon enough to keep from falling down them. A crawling infant would likely stop and explore the "open space" in front of him or her, but a walker will probably not. Special precautions and concerns come with this exciting and trying early milestone.

Now consider the 14-month-old who hasn?t taken more than a couple of steps alone. Parents worry and well-meaning relatives increase the concern by asking about the child's apparent lack of competency in this area. Occasionally, a late walker does indicate a problem, and it is certainly something that a parent would ask the pediatrician, but many times it is just a matter of being patient. Any parent who has been in this situation can tell you that patience isn?t easy. Society puts pressure on parents to have their children do certain things by certain ages (walking by 11 months, for example. Reading before kindergarten is another example) and many times society wants children to reach the milestones earlier than "normal." This puts a lot of pressure on parents whose children simply want to be "normal!"

Well, then, what is normal? Well, in developmental psychology, relating to when developmental tasks are mastered, 'normal' refers to the age when 50% of children have mastered a certain skill. Normal age for walking (see p. 153) is 12.1 months. This means that 50% of children have mastered walking by this age. Also keep in mind that 50% have not. If children wait to begin walking until 13 or 14 months, they are in good company! As you can see, "normal" encompasses a broad time line, and a wide variety of behaviors are considered normal.

Summary:

Child growth and development is a subject that almost everyone has an opinion about - whether or not they have children of their own. The opinions about "the right way" to do things, or how things should be, are as numerous and as varied as the stars in the sky. We have all heard and experienced this field first-hand, sometimes with our own children (if we have them), and without a doubt from our own childhood. We have heard others giving "child rearing" advice, and have personally observed others "doing it the wrong way" (in a restaurant, for example?). You are coming to this class with many ideas, opinions, and experiences relating to child development, regardless of the current status of children in your life. We all have ideas on how children should grow, behave, be disciplined, speak, interact with adults and with each other, be "potty trained," be nurtured, and how they should "turn out."

Undoubtedly, the subject of child development can (and will) be a topic for lively discussions. Additionally, much research has been done in this area and we are more aware than ever of patterns that children exhibit. I encourage you to keep an open mind while exploring the many theories. You will also find that some of these theories conflict. How can this be? Which is right? Well, many times each of them is right - in certain circumstances. We will not only examine how reliable and valid past and current research is, but look closely at the circumstances surrounding the studies, children, etc. to see in which situations the research would apply. (I will discuss how this is done in detail in another lesson.)

I hope you will enjoy this class. I am looking forward to getting to know each of you, and to hearing your opinions. Please be sure that you read the chapters before reading the lectures and completing assignments or discussion questions. All other lessons are accessed through the discussion board (they are "password protected"). To go to the Discussion Board, click "Discuss" at the bottom of any "page" or simply click on the links for the lessons on our course homepage.  Be sure you have filled out and submitted your syllabus as well - this is the first requirement of the course.) Also, I encourage you read the other links on our course homepage, especially the "online information" section.  I also encourage you to ask questions whenever you don?t understand something. I am here to answer them and will respond within 24 hours during regular business days and often within that time on weekends (the syllabus gives instructions about what do to if you don't receive an answer within that time-frame).  Asking questions is especially important in an online class, since we won?t have the usual classroom contact, and I can?t "see" your faces as I "lecture" to see if there are questions!

Ok, let's get started with the first quiz, then move on to Chapter 1!  

CLICK HERE TO TAKE QUIZ #1

INTRODUCTION (Ch. 1)

Ok, let?s get started. Of course, you have already read Chapter 1 and have the background information. What I will do in this chapter?s lecture is give you an overview of what we will be covering in the book and an introduction to child development. We will discuss some of the factors that come into play in development, such as Socio-Economic Status, Culture, and Ethnicity. We will also discuss the different approaches to looking at human development and the way research is conducted to reach the theories we will study. Lastly, we will discuss ethics in research.

The Three Domains of Development:

There are three main focuses that we will use when discussing childhood growth and development. 

1) the biosocial domain, which focuses on biology and how society affects this physical development. Some of the main theorists we will be talking about are Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning), B. F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning), and Albert Bandura (Social Learning).

2) the cognitive domain, which focuses on the development of intelligence and thought, as well as language development and the educational system?s influence on these topics. Some of the main theorists in this section will be Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development), Lev Vygotsky (Sociocultural Theory), and Lawrence Kholberg (Moral Reasoning).

3) the psychosocial domain, which focuses on emotions, personality, and relationships with others. Two of the main theorists in this section will be Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalytic Theory) and Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Theory).

Other factors in development:

Socio-Economic Status:

Socio-Economic Status (SES) affects children?s development on many different levels. What exactly is Socio-Economic Status? Well, many times we think of it as family income. While this is very true, there are other factors as well. Factors such as education, place of residence, and occupation overlap to create the entire picture of socio-economic status.

In general, there are three categories that you have probably heard used: Upper class, Middle class, Lower class. Within each class, there are two levels - upper and lower. So you could have an upper-upper class, a lower-middle class, or an upper-lower class, etc. I realize that it is not "socially acceptable" to have classes or to use them to classify people, but even in America, people are divided into classes - not simply for discriminatory purposes (even though some discriminate based on SES) but the main purpose for the distinctions is to help or measure people. SES can be used for government demographics, measuring unemployment, selling products, and of course, social research.

Example:

Well, just how useful is something that can be so discriminatory? In 1994 there was an outbreak of measles in children under two years old in Los Angeles County. The State Health Department needed to curb this outbreak, since measles is a deadly childhood disease. Studies were done, and statistics collected, and the Health Department found that the reason for the outbreak was that many children were not being vaccinated. Additionally, because they measured their data by SES, they found that the majority of children not being vaccinated were from the Lower-Lower SES levels. A campaign began to educate parents about the importance of vaccinations - targeted at the educational and income levels of lower SES parents, and targeted in the areas where there was a high concentration of poverty-ridden areas and low-income/government subsidized housing. Posters were put up in county health clinics - frequently used by those who have little or no income. TV ads came out, targeted to a level which those with little or no education and/or language (English) skills would understand. Billboards in low SES areas were erected (or rented) with information about low-cost vaccinations. Much more publicity was done. Additionally, the State of California also allotted funding for increased "Well Child" check-ups at clinics where those with low incomes paid little or nothing for health care. Without funding for the vaccinations, the advertisements about what a parent "should" do would have been useless.

Within two years, the epidemic had been brought under control, with more children being vaccinated than ever before. This campaign is still in effect. County health offices and private insurance companies are sending "vaccination reminders" to everyone who has given birth recently (during the month when the vaccinations should be given), regardless of SES. I?m sure that these reminders are very effective in reaching people who otherwise might overlook these important vaccinations.

Now think, for a minute: How would this campaign have changed if the study had shown that it was the Upper-middle class that was neglecting to vaccinate their children. Would advertising have been different? Would funding (or as much funding) have been necessary?

Culture:

Definitions: What is culture? What is ethnicity? How do they relate to each other? Many times, we use these terms interchangeably. I am going to give you the actual definitions here, and you will be able to see the difference between the two. Hopefully, you will now be able to use each in its proper context!

Culture is defined as "the set of values, assumptions, and customs, as well as the physical objects (clothing, dwellings, cuisine, technologies, works of art, etc.), that a group of people have developed over the years as a design for living that provides structure for their life together (Berger, 2000, p. 12). Culture affects development in many interrelated ways, from how parents feed their children, discipline them, or ways in which parents emphasize children?s education, independence, and creativity.

Specifically, in this class, culture will refer to the values and assumptions of specific groups, rather than the clothing, cuisine, etc. Thus, culture has very little to do with race, national ancestry, and/or religion; AND it may have everything to do with these shared characteristics. What I mean, is, that it is much more than simply two people who look alike and speak the same language. These are values that are handed down from one generation to another, and may or may not be related to race, nationality, religion, etc. Some groups may pass down traditions that have been adopted out of necessity or choice, which may have only to do with that particular family or group.

Thus, when we talk about values and assumptions, there can be a wide variation within groups that we might assume would be the same "culture." What we would actually be referring to, for example, would be the value that certain cultures place on children. As your book mentions, in agricultural societies where children are an economic asset, they are safeguarded to be sure they survive, and family cooperation (interdependence) is encouraged. Conversely, in a middle-class, post-industrial society, children are expected to be independent and industrious: to "succeed" in the world of work. Thus, child rearing efforts focus on intellectual development and independence (Berger, 2000).

Ethnicity:

Ethnicity is defined as "certain attributes, such as ancestry, national origin, religion, and/or language, shared by a group. . . Racial identity can be considered an element of ethnicity" (p. 14), as can the shared attitudes and experiences that people in certain groups have in common. Ethnicity is more than this, however. It comes from an individual?s or a group?s environment, and which group and individual chooses (or feels most comfortable) associations with. Thus, people with similar cultures may have very different ethnicities. Language and religion, for example, are aspects of ethnicity. People may have the same cultural identities (food, values, etc.), but very different religions and/or languages (Berger, 2000). Consider the nation of India, for example. People raised there, Asian Indians, share the same culture; but while there is a huge population of Hindus in India, there are other religions also. The Muslims, for example, share much of the same cuisine (though not all), but live and worship much differently. Thus these people share race, nationality, and culture but not ethnicity.

You can see that sometimes, culture and ethnicity will overlap, such as in providing people with shared values and assumptions, but are different in religions, traditions, language, and child rearing.

Conducting Research:

Developmental Psychology, like any other branch of Psychology, is a science, and so research must be conducted and data must be gathered in a scientific way, to ensure that results are as accurate as possible.

There are several types of research, some are purely for information gathering (such as surveys and observations) and some will give a close approximation of a cause/effect relationship (called correlation, which we will discuss in a few minutes).

Surveys and observation (naturalistic - in the person?s natural environment; and laboratory) are for gathering information. We are able to get information on trends, tendencies, and people?s preferences and habits from surveys and observation. This is how data is gathered. Some strengths of surveys are that they can reach a large population in a very short time, and they are comparatively inexpensive. Some limitations are that they have a very low response rate (50% is good!) and sometimes people are not always honest. It also limits the researcher because he or she cannot see the face or the reaction of the person being surveyed.

Observation is an excellent way to gather data - it lets the researcher observe the person in his or her natural environment (naturalistic observation) and yields accurate results - for one person. In the laboratory, people can be observed and the researcher can eliminate many of the "outside influences" that can sometimes produce inaccurate results. One of the drawbacks to observation is that people can sometimes act differently if they know they are being observed. Also, observation is very time-consuming and expensive. After all, one could send out millions and millions of surveys (funding permitting) in one?s lifetime, but how many individuals could one actually observe in one?s lifetime?

Thus, research is designed with the goal of the study in mind, and the researcher?s limitations as well. If the goal of the research is something that needs a huge amount of data in a short period of time, one may choose to use the survey method in spite of the drawback (indeed, some of the drawbacks may not even be a problem in certain researches); and if one needs more specific, spontaneous, natural responses, then the researcher may decide to opt for the observational method.

We have just discussed research that gathers data. These types of researches have no other purpose. If one wants to determine a cause/effect relationship, then the data needs to be compared in an experiment. This is called experimental research. Experimental research actually tries to show that one "behavior" or event "causes" another. However, one must be very cautious in interpreting this information, because human behavior is very different, and, unlike in science, nothing can be "proven" 100% in psychology. Researchers find trends, and correlations (events and behaviors that seem to "go together") but never is a hypothesis "proven." In mathematics, there is one (sometimes two or more, but rarely) totally correct answer. For example, 1+1 always equals 2. Except when it equals 3, right? No, not in math. 1+1 = 2 always, and we can count on that. In psychology, because we are dealing with humans who think and feel and behave in different and unpredictable ways, sometimes we have results that are not typical - results that are exceptions. In psychology, figuratively speaking, 1+1 = 2 MOST of the time, but there are the few, rare exceptions when it equals 27 or 1,362. In other words, in very rare cases, we see exceptions to the rule, and cases where research is not true for EVERY situation. Keep in mind that exceptions are exactly that: exceptions. They don?t make the "rule" not true or inaccurate. When research has been done over and over, and has yielded the same results each time, one can be fairly sure that the results are reliable.

Well, if research is never 100% "proven," then what does it do? If we can?t prove something, then what good is the research anyway? Let me give you an example of correlation:

Notice that in inner-city New York, during August, violence rises. Also, during that same time, ice cream sales increase. So, looking at that data, we could reasonably assume that eating more ice cream causes violence. Right??? Oh, you don?t agree? Ok, well, then violence obviously causes people to buy more ice cream. Right? Well, if you think logically about this, you would figure out very quickly that there is another factor involved - what researchers call an intervening variable - a factor that can affect BOTH things. Sometimes the intervening variable is not as obvious as in this example. What is our intervening variable here? Heat, of course. The heat causes ice cream sales to increase, AND the heat causes violence to increase, especially in crowded areas. But these two things (ice cream sales and violence) correlate - they go together. Correlation means - not that one thing causes another, but that they go together on a consistent basis. Notice, then, that even if we see a strong correlation between two things, we still cannot say for sure that one thing causes another. Even in the case of the correlation between heat and violence, we STILL cannot say that one causes another. They are very closely correlated, but what if there was a mosquito that hatched right at the first of August and died out by the end of August, and everyone it stung got more violent? Well, obviously, researchers would need to look into all the other factors, but we need to be aware that there could be something else that "causes" certain behavior. This is why researchers will use correlational studies and results when "causational" studies are not available.

Showing a cause and effect relationship is very, very difficult, but not impossible. One way to show that heat causes violence would be to squeeze the entire population of New York in a laboratory, getting rid of the mosquitoes and the ice cream, and turn up the heat!! If they get more violent than usual, than we can be very sure that heat causes violence. Although we still could not be 100% positive, we could rely on the results to try to alleviate some of the violence during the hot, summer months. However, with this "laboratory experiment" we have one other factor to consider. The ethics of "causing" people to be violent. No experiment like this would be allowed in today?s society -- it is unethical. Much of our medical research, which needs to be very, very, precise and accurate, is done in a laboratory to eliminate as many intervening variables as possible. This is also why animals are used in research, to eliminate, as much as possible, the "human" factor that causes differences in behavior.

Ethics in Research

In the late 16th century, a king decided to conduct an experiment about language. He took 50 children from orphanages and placed them in a "laboratory" - a special orphanage that he had set up for these children. As a king and a scientist, he wanted to see which language these babies would learn if they were not taught a language. The infants, living in a "better" environment that they had been in when they lived in the orphanage (where they would not have had enough food or clothing, very little human interaction, and very likely would have died from disease and starvation), were given food, clothing, and shelter. They were kept clean, dry, and fed. All of their biological needs were met. However, the caregivers in this situation were to refrain from interacting in any way with the infants. They did not talk to, cuddle, or otherwise interact with the infants to ensure that the infants wound not inadvertently learn the caretakers? language. What language do you suppose these infants learned? Well, before they had a chance to learn or develop ANY language, they had all died.

Through this experiment we learned that children need more than food, clothing and shelter. They need to be loved and nurtured, which was not something that was known or considered before this time. Keep in mind that in those days, and for several centuries after, children were considered property and commodities, not "people." 

Could we duplicate this study today? Not only would we not want to, but it would be illegal and unethical. Ethics, over and above laws, determine much of what is done, and not done, in research today. The laws govern extreme cases, but ethics cover the wide range of "gray areas" that are not illegal, but just aren?t "right."

Some ethical factors that are considered when research studies are proposed (there are committees who govern these studies and watch to make sure that these ethical considerations are met) are as follows:

1. Participation must be voluntary and not coerced. Participants sign a consent form, which advises them of their rights, including the right not to participate, the right to withdraw at any time, and the right to be informed about the results of the study.

2. Participation must not harm the participant: physically, psychologically, or emotionally. This is sometimes hard to determine, but if participants are completely informed of everything the research entails, then the participant can decide if it may be harmful. Additionally, the researcher must always be watching for undue distress, emotional discomfort, or physical pain in his or her participants. (When this falls into a gray area, #4 is also a consideration. . .)

3. Researchers should avoid deception. There are some exceptions to this rule - sometimes informing the participants of the entire scope of the research would bias their behavior. For example, if a researcher was testing a diet drug, and one-half of the group got the actual diet drug, and the other half got a placebo (fake pill - usually sugar - with no drug) the participants would act differently. The "diet drug" group may exercise more and be more aware of what they eat, because they are aware that they are taking the pill. The "fake drug" group, or placebo group, may eat even worse than before, knowing that nothing was going to help. Thus when the groups are divided, many times they are not told which group is taking the actual drug and which group is taking the placebo, thus minimizing the bias. This is called minimal deception. If deception is used, then the researcher must 1) debrief the participants - tell them what actually was studied, and 2) offer the same "treatment" to those who used a placebo or received no treatment, when applicable.

4. Benefits of the study must outweigh any potential risks.

5. Confidentiality of the participants must be maintained. This is a law, in addition to a point of ethics. A researcher must maintain confidentiality forever, unless otherwise given permission by the participant(s).

CLICK HERE TO TAKE QUIZ #2

(Don't forget to participate in the discussion for Week 1 if you haven't already - click "discuss" - below - to participate in the discussion)