This is the first in a series of eight lectures on the eastern and western religious traditions. Each week and in support of the text, there will be a focus on a single subject. For the most part, the lectures shall support a general history of how these religions began. The text will fill in many other details on rituals, ceremonies, and holidays in each tradition. Our subjects will be as follows:

Week 1 - A general discussion of religion and the terminology of religious studies as an academic discipline.

Week 2 – Hinduism

Week 3 – Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism

Week 4 – Taoism and Confucianism

Week 5 – Shinto and Judaism

Week 6- Christianity

Week 7- Islam and Alternative Paths

Week 8- The Modern Search

Religion. This single word conveys many things to different people. It is useful to start with a dictionary definition: religion, n. system of faith and worship (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 317). This noun reads so simply, and yet it leads us to so many complexities, theories, and mysteries.

The word "religion" is not only used by dictionary meaning. It can be deployed to denote all kinds of other things beyond "system of faith and worship." For example, the expression "he got religion while serving time in prison" means more than becoming devout. The word simply belies the simplicity of Webster’s and means so much more.

Since the dawn of creation, man has tried to understand his world. Whether or not this creation consisted of the seven days discussed in Genesis is an article of faith for millions. It is equally a subject of great debate by skeptics and persons who offer a liberal reading of the Scriptures. In essence, some argue fossilized remains are evidence how cavemen once walked the planet and probably predated the arrival of the Hebrew patriarch Abraham on the world stage (1900-1700 B.C.E.). Then again, if a day in Genesis is not specified, then it is altogether possible a day at the dawn of creation was longer than a 24 hr. period. It is all a question of belief and interpretation. The discussions are endless and flavor America’s national life today.

The answer here is astonishingly simple: people have died for it and have killed for it. Since ancient times, men have found religious beliefs and have been motivated to find followers among other men. In the days of Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire, religions were veritable symbols of a tribe or a "nation." A warring state such as Alexander’s Macedonia certainly sought to impose its belief system on its subjects. Again, nothing new here since Scriptures give us numerous accounts of such activities among the Semitic peoples in the eastern Mediterranean. A simple reading of the Old Testament can be quite startling: an excellent history book, but one filled with stories about wiping out entire civilizations in the name of God as seen in the Book of Numbers, Chapter 31 of the Old Testament. It should be added, this even took place in what we can call, "pre-Judaism." By this, we mean the Hebrew people existed, but there was no organized system to their religious beliefs. Not until the subsequent First Jewish Commonwealth did Judaism with ethnical monotheism at its core begin to evolve.

One look at the history of mankind reveals a constant war over religion. It is very much with us in recent years: The fighting among the Balkan states in Europe involves Orthodox Christians, Muslims, and Roman Catholics. Similar tensions have led to violence among the independent states of the former Soviet Union. In Northern Ireland, there is a lull right now – But tensions are always smoldering beneath the surface for Protestants and Catholics. In the Middle East, Muslim fundamentalists kill brother Muslims in an effort to either impose their view or hasten their own way to paradise. It is also important to distinguish religion from nationalism. It is very much at play, especially in the Middle East. It seems as if the Arab-Israeli conflict often garners the most attention by the media. This is more of a struggle in a classic nationalistic sense, than a war over religion. Neither side is really interested in converting the other. While this conflict frequently makes headlines, the vast majority of wars in the region have taken place among Muslims, both Arab and non-Arab. Among the eastern faiths, religious conflicts have led to bloodshed and violence throughout India. It is crucial to understand religion because it so very much a part of our lives. Increasingly, religion might be the most powerful single force in the world today – more important than nationalism, trade, or the internet.

Consider this chilling thought, as you read this—right now, there is probably someone planning to kill someone else over the issue of religion. This is not to say religion is bad or a negative influence. But it needs to be understood as a driving force, which has shaped and continues to mold our common destinies.

We know where religion has failed. Too many people have died in its name and this runs counter to most every recognized belief. Usually, it is the perversion of belief, which has led to violence. When such belief is raised to the level of zealotry, the results can be catastrophic indeed. History is replete with the stories of wars fought over the issue of religious belief or where forces are driven by some kind of religious inspiration. The five Crusades launched by western European Christians, beginning in 1096, are but one illustration of this force. Mere mention of the word "crusade" implies all kinds of things, but doing something in "the name of God" usually is at the core of one’s definition.

But religion has overwhelmingly added to its confessing communities. As a body of beliefs, rituals, and worship, religion has comforted the ill and bereaved, given hope in the absence of earthly success, and provided guidance for everyday life. The good deeds of religious bodies and their followers are virtually as numerous as the stars in the heavens. From Saint Francis of Assisi to Mother Theresa, and from the Dalai Lama to the Pope, people of faith have transformed the world.

Obviously, not everyone shares in a spiritually-based world. Agnostics question the very existence of God and atheists do not believe in a deity of any kind. Yet, we need to pause and consider this: When something suddenly happens, how often do you hear someone say, "Oh, my non-belief in a divine presence"?

Religion has a more complex meaning than just being a noun. It is what is called an extensionally vulnerable word. By this, we mean "religion" is often not a neutral word when mentioned. Few subjects are as emotionally sensitive as "religion."

America was discovered by Christian Europeans, who aside from seeking riches, also intended to convert the heathen. The New World was colonized on the Atlantic Coast by many people seeking freedom from religious persecution in England. Sectarian groups established some of the individual colonies. Yet, America is one of the few nations in the West where there is no state religion. Indeed, one of the touchiest of subjects is when there is an intermingling of religion into secular life. Reliable polls since World War II show Americans to be a fairly religious people. The country arguably has more faith-based religious diversity today than ever in its past. With a sharp increase in the number of non Judeo-Christians to the U.S. population, the subject of religion is perhaps more touchy than ever before.

Religion has played a significant role in the lives of millions of worshippers and believers and has been an ongoing factor in the volatile, social and political events of diverse regions. Yet for those who study religion, there is often little agreement on the definition of religion itself. When questions about the origin of religion are raised, many scholars have accepted the futility of trying to discern the origins of religion and have simply restricted their studies to the everyday manifestations of religious life and practice and the practical ways (personal prayer, pilgrimage, ritual, etc.) religious systems meet the needs of human growth and healing.

Etymologically the word "religion" probably comes from the Latin verb religare, which means, "to bind things together." Consequently, for the influential scholar Emile Durkheim religion was that organized system—a product of society’s ‘collective conscience,’ deified in symbolic images and rites—which held societies together. His belief shows how deeply religious ties can bind societies and cultures together.

Over the last century or so, many writers have offered definitions of religion. One such author was Rudolf Otto. Otto’s classic text, The Idea of the Holy (1917), characterized the religious experience as an encounter with the sacred, an experience that was both frightening and fascinating, tremendous mystery that elicited awe and wonder. His work precipitated an interest in the sacred, that which is set off from the ordinary or mundane, and the holy, which is often associated with such notions as "numinous," "wholeness," and "perfection." Usually contrasted with the profane, the sacred has become the particular object of many religious studies.

One can readily get lost in the maze of questions related to the definition of religion such as: Does religion point to some reality outside of the human or social condition? Or is it a psychological or social invention? Can an "essential" definition for religion be produced and agreed upon? Concerning the last question, the answer is ‘obviously not!’ Every student of religion brings his or her own bias. Each, in turn, will highlight one or some of the various elements of the religious experience: the social dimensions; personal experience; foundational doctrines or myth; the structures and functions of religious practice; a transcendent or immanent ultimate reality; psychological illusions; the sacred; or the "spiritual" core of devotion.

So where are we in arriving at a definition for religion? If nothing else, it is hoped that you are in the midst of a great classroom discussion about how to define it. No final definition will be agreed upon, because the issue is too subjective. However, the definitions will frequently touch on those things that express and explain the deepest mysteries of life; give value to the meaning of life and the world that sustains it; support, console, nurture and unite people; sanctify life’s passages; and draw upon the rich resources of tradition, culture and the most profound experiences of the faithful.

The word myth comes from the Greek mythos, which means "word" or "story." Every religion has foundational stories filled with symbolic language and actions that recount the activities of gods, goddesses and other superhuman beings. They usually take place "in the beginning," a kind of primordial time when all things had their origins. The myths themselves metaphorically point to relationships between things and deeper truths about the mysteries of the human condition. Some myths provide explanations for rituals, the origin of things, and natural phenomena allude to a religion’s beliefs and customs, alleviate fears about death, provide models for community life and interpersonal relationships, or reflect archetypes (Carl Jung) that exist in the collective unconscious of all of humanity. They may include themes like the journey quest, the wise one, the origin of humans, creation, floods and the afterlife, the beginning of a specific civilization, the problem of evil, or the universal struggle between chaos and order. For most religions, the language of symbol, analogy, metaphor, poetry, and story is the way of expressing truth. Religious myth, then, is the overarching narrative that defines a people’s beliefs and religious activities.

Religious language is often symbolic. Likewise, the material and performance arts of religion are usually symbolic. Symbols (such as the lotus blossom, the cross) can be effective conduits to the divine. Unlike signs, which verbally or visually present a specific message, symbols are not bound to one meaning but can point to other things: a living reality or deeper truths. They are not restricted to reason but speak to the imagination and emotions. They can mediate non-literal understandings and experiences of the sacred and convey what words cannot express.

For some religious cultures, orthodox beliefs are crucial to the worshipper (‘believer") and his or her community. It is thought to ensure the salvation of the believer and the stability of the worshipping community. Those who differ in thought from the orthodox believers are called heterodox or, more critically, heretics (literally, "those who choose"). Their position in the religious community can be precarious. However, in other religious cultures, adherence to specific beliefs is not particularly mandatory. There may be a general consensus about foundational narratives but little debate over finer, more rigid points of doctrine. Ritual participation or ethical action may be more important. Nevertheless, belief systems still remain an invaluable element of all religious traditions.

A key ingredient of any religious belief system is it description of the nature of God. These descriptions can be based on the tradition’s myths, sacred scriptures, cultural biases, historical and philosophical trends, and authoritative accounts of individual experiences. They will vary between religious traditions as well as within the traditions themselves. The following terms describe some of the diverse ways that the nature of the divine has been defined: 

Theism—the belief in a God who is characterized by having personal attributes.

Deism—a belief that claims that God is impersonal and distant from the world and has endowed humanity with sufficient natural reason and moral will.

Pantheism—the notion that everything is God or that God is the immanent source of everything.

Polytheism—the belief in many gods; they often form a pantheon of deities.

Monotheism—the belief in one God

Henotheism—allegiance to one God while recognizing that there are other gods who may claim that allegiance at other times; also, the idea that one god may appear under different names or forms.

Along with these expressions we can also include monism, the doctrine that only one reality truly exists (sometimes synonymous with pantheism) and dualism, the concept of two eternal principles or spirits—one good and one evil—that form the basis of all existence. 

Religious traditions hold convictions about the nature of God as well as specific beliefs about the nature of the universe—its structure, origin, and dynamic processes. According to some religious cultures, the universe repetitiously cycles through epochs of birth, death, and rebirth. Others posit a linear creation with a specific beginning and end. For some the world is not real but an illusion of humanity or God’s making. To others, however, it is the real arena of possibility, the focus of holy living, a sacred gift that gives meaning and purpose to human life, not a temptation to escape but a responsibility to embrace.

For the religious, God and creation are not simply theological themes for discussion. They are reality itself and expect more than just reflection. They demand responsible and accountable behavior. All religions have moral codes; all have social expectations, grounded in appropriate, individual conduct. Morality and ethics are the pragmatic expressions of what matters most to the believers. Along with ritual, moral living and ethical behavior participate in sanctifying the whole life of the faithful. They reflect the continual struggle of good vs. evil, harm vs. benefit, and wisdom vs. foolishness. In many ways, the ethical mandates of a religion reflect its deepest-held beliefs about the character of God and the purpose and value of creation and ethics disclose the human side of those beliefs.

Every major religious tradition has sacred texts. Some are either originally derived from an oral tradition or transcribed into written form over a long period of time or a book of works collected over a relatively brief period and associated with particular individuals. For non-literate, indigenous cultures the sacred texts or stories were continually passed on by storytellers and sacred, narrative dance. For literate societies the sacred texts can comprise a number of literary genre including poetry, laws, hymns, prayers, narrative tales, apocalyptic visions, prophecies, soothsaying, letters, proverbs, fables and wise maxims.

The religious traditions’ relationships to the texts can vary. Some consider their scriptures (literally, "writings") eternal revelations of the Truth; others take seriously the human and cultural factors involved in the writing and transmission of the texts. The Eastern traditions of Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto describe their ancient texts as wise counsels of the sages. Hinduism and Buddhism acknowledge the importance of the reader or hearer’s level of understanding in interpreting the ‘truth’ of the text. Most traditions have texts of different levels of importance, with a canon (literally, "measure") of authoritative writings as well as other secondary writings that may also enjoy great popularity among the faithful.

Scribes, gurus, and other religious leaders generally play important roles in interpreting the sacred texts. They are responsible for drawing out the meaning of the texts for their generation. Sometimes their interpretations can lead to sectarian differences. Two commonly used terms in discussions about scriptural interpretation are exegesis and hermeneutics. Each type of interpretation attempts give the meaning to a text, but each is grounded in the presuppositions or points of view of the interpreter.

All religion involves some form of practice and ritual, even if it is simply bowing one’s head in mental prayer or sitting motionless trying to empty one’s mind. Religious practices, especially formal ritual, are a combination of word, movement and symbol to bring the worshipper into a closer relationship with the sacred.

Religious practices can take place anywhere. Unlike everyday religious practices, however, ritual usually involves professionals such as priests, priestesses, rabbis, ministers, imams, and shamans; and there is often a scrupulous concern for verbal formulas and order to ensure the power and effectiveness of the ritual itself.

Not all saints are saintly. Nevertheless, human flaws and all, creative, influential, and authoritative individuals have been vital to all religious traditions. Some have been the founders of their religious traditions and, with their unique ways of conveying their deepest and most profound spiritual experiences, have been essential in the creation of the bedrock recollections, experiences, and myths of their religious communities. Other important, religious individuals have affected their religious communities in an assortment of ways: as wellsprings of wisdom (seers, sages), as ritual specialists and local leaders (priests, priestesses, rabbis, imams, ministers, elders), as practitioners of ascetic disciplines (monks, hermits, nuns, fakirs), as healers (shamans, medicine men), as victims for the faith (martyrs, confessors), as renovators and/or critics of the faith (prophets), as interpreters of the faith and its scriptures (scribes, teachers, gurus), and as those who have experiential knowledge of the divine (mystics, bodhisattvas, dervishes, Zen masters). Obviously, however, an individual’s effect on his or her religious community may include many of these listed qualities.

The Arts

Religion has both influenced and been influenced by the arts. In many cases, it has provided society with some of its most important artistic inspirations. At other times, it has readily adapted local, cultural customs.

The chart highlights some of the contrasting tendencies and views between the Eastern and Western religious traditions. It should be noted that these beliefs are not consistently held by every Eastern or Western religious group. In fact, there are many exceptions to these generalizations. 

Assignments:

Lesson One

Read Chapters 1 & 2; Define terms for both chapters; Answer the discussion question for Week 1 on the discussion page; Prepare and submit chapter summaries for chapters 1 & 2.

CHAPTER SUMMARIES

Each week you are responsible for preparing a chapter summary for each chapter assigned for the week. The summary should reflect the main points of the reading and show an understanding of the material. The summaries should be a minimum of three paragraphs and no longer than five paragraphs in length. The summaries need to be e-mailed directly to Dr. Emerick at temerick@bcconline.com. Be sure to state "chapter summary" and the chapter number in the regarding line of your e-mail or your e-mail will not be received.

Discussion Question

Week 1; What are the basic characteristics or elements of religion?

Although, specific religious denominations have their own educational institutions to engage in the study of religion, our course of study seeks to examine confessing communities from an academic perspective. Many people learn about religion from their family and communities, but we will look at the major western traditions with the aid of secular scholarship in fields called the humanities. Therefore, the goal will be to keep an open mind during this course of study. As we focus on different subjects each week, it is important to view each religious question on its own terms. While individuals in religious studies might differ in belief, it is important to appreciate how the various religions developed and how they have kept their adherents through the centuries and the western religious institutions have outlasted every conquering empire.

There is a wide variety of subject matter in the field of religious studies. Along with some of the most enduring and inspirational of western literature, western religions have shaped American civilization. The terminology of religion expends to our everyday lives, regardless of belief. Our exploration of the western religious traditions in the next five weeks will provide insights on the very basis of civilization throughout much of the globe. An understanding of such belief systems will yield to you a better understanding of our society today and from where many critical spiritual structures have been created to shape the minds of men and women.