Welcome to Global Civilizations! From this class it is hoped you gain an appreciation of the ancient world, its peoples, cultures, and ancient civilizations’ contributions to modern society. Beginning with pre-historic man and his migration patterns and culminating with the early Middle Ages, this course will address traditional Western civilization topics. Furthermore, Sub Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and Asia are examined thus broadening the study of cultures beyond the traditional Western Civilization framework.

Let’s begin with what is commonly referred to as "pre-history" or, the "BC" (Before Christ) period, which our textbook refers to as "BCE" (Before Common Era). Archeologists (those scientists who study cultures based on relics such as bones, "pottery," tools, etc. left behind by defunct civilizations) have dated mans’ origins traceable to south-east Africa, circa (which means "about") 40,000 years BC. Dr. Louis Leakey (an archeologist) discovered fossils in Kenya in 1932 claiming they were the oldest ancestors of modern man. Likewise, Professors Donald Johanson and Tom Gray discovered the skeletal remains of "Lucy" at Hadar in Ethiopia. Allegedly so enthused by the find, the two scientists held a party commemorating the skeleton’s discovery. After continuously playing the Beatles tune "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds" –coupled with dancing and drinking- the scientists conveyed upon their skeleton the name "Lucy." Since 1974 –the year of Lucy’s discovery- the name has stuck.

Such early anthropological findings are known as "Hominidae" which encompass all species originating after the ancestral split between humans and African apes. A typical characteristic of Hominidaes is their ability to walk upright, sometimes referred to as "bipedal locomotion."

About 20,000 years later, the growth in world population necessitated the need for hunting and gathering practices by those we refer to as "nomadic peoples." For example, Asiatic people began tracking animals across what popular science has dubbed the "Bering Strait" (near Alaska) in pursuit of their food sources. These excursions took many hunters as far south as the tip of present day South America. Together with meat, bread became a staple of early man with the planting of wheat crops. Later, the domestication of draft animals (those used for carrying loads: horses, oxen, mules) allowed further expansion in agricultural production as lands became cultivated, and man developed the wheel! This epoch also witnesses the rise of the Middle Eastern culture. The Sumerians, as an example, came from an area known as "Mesopotamia" (when translated means between two rivers: the Tigris and the Euphrates…I’ll let you guess what country this is…hint: they found a guy with a scraggly beard hiding in a hole there one night and his first words were "don’t shoot")

These folks were primarily agricultural but were effective at building irrigation systems as well. Excavations have evidenced a proficiency in the usage of copper and gold for weaponry, and the Sumerians also receive credit for developing Cuneiform, which is an early system of writing. Other inhabitants of the Mesopotamian region consisted of Semitic peoples (Arabs, Canaanites, Phoenicians and some ethnic groups of Ethiopia, for example). Grouped together because their languages were similar, Semitic peoples settled on the Arabian Peninsula and later Mesopotamia. Others inhabited the eastern Mediterranean coast (like the Phoenicians) and in and around the Sinai (Hebrews and Palestinians). This period also witnesses the ascendancy of the Babylonian Empire. United under the ruler Hammurabi, Babylon became a center of political stability, administrative modernity, and religious expression. The "Code of Hammurabi," a collection of laws similar to a modern day penal code, listed decisions granted by Hammurabi himself governing infractions against property, morality, and bodily harm. These legal opinions drafted by the king himself –Hammurabi- served as the first (known) written law in history.

The unification of cultures along the Nile River (circa 3000 BC.) led to the beginning of the dynastic period in ancient Egypt. During this epoch pyramids are constructed for the first time, a common use of symbols (Hieroglyphs) fostered trade as local peoples have a uniform method of communication, and Papyrus paper serves as a means of record keeping. By today’s standards Egyptian government would have been considered highly centralized headed by rulers (Pharaohs) the people looked upon as Gods.

Religion played an important role in dynastic Egypt. The Sun, evidenced by the God, Ra, would make his daily "journey" across the sky providing light for all Egyptians. To the Egyptians this journey, of sorts, evidenced "life"; sunset, culminating with nightfall, brought on a struggle between life and death with the former rising once again the following day. Death, a transition essential for eternal peace (according to the Egyptians), embarked the deceased on an expedition –sometimes perilous- that would hopefully end with immortality. Such dogma required sufficient preparation of the body for its voyage: preservation with chemical embalming agents, a death mask so the deceased would maintain his/her positive countenance in the afterlife, food and clothing necessary for travel, and a "book of the dead" replete with spells and incantations to steer one's way through the after life.

The Greek philosopher Herodotus referred to Egypt’s bounty as the Nile River, or the "gift of the Nile," as he dubbed the great waterway. In Egypt, two areas of cultural and economic significance developed: the Delta region, along with settlements on the banks of the Nile River. Rich black soil left over from alluvial deposits when the Nile overflowed enhanced the agricultural production of Egyptian farmers residing along the Nile. Similarly, those living around the Delta –in what is considered Lower Egypt- witnessed growth in agricultural production brought on by irrigation systems originating from the river.

Upper Egypt –the southern portion of the country- saw growth in the cities of Nekhen, Naqada, and Abydos aided by the increased settlements along the Nile and in the Delta. Again, the Nile acted as a magnet for settlement; unlike Mesopotamian waterways, the Nile facilitated transportation uniting various areas of Egypt vis-B-vis trade.

Hieroglyphs (or "sacred carvings") consist of pictorial writings. The "Rosetta Stone," used by French explorer Jean Francois Champollion as a device to decipher hieroglyphs, contained three versions of text written in Greek, demotic (an Egyptian language), and hieroglyphics. Champollion could read Greek; as a result, he could interpret the other two languages.

In terms of an Egyptian "language," linguists have debated the origins of the ancient Egyptian tongue. Many believe it a part of a "super family" of languages combining a host of African idioms with eastern Semitic languages. Over time the ancient language morphed into "Coptic," a form of verbal communication which today makes of the liturgy of the Coptic Church.

As pyramid construction is concerned, at one time white limestone encased the Great Pyramid of Giza (built for King Khufu, "Cheops" in Greek) with a capstone of solid gold. Dimensions consisted of a 481 foot high structure with each side of its base 756 feet long. Legend has it that the Muslims in Cairo during the middle ages used the limestone to help fortify Cairo from invaders, the Gold had already gone.

No, slaves did not construct the Pyramids –but paid workers. The futility of agricultural pursuits during times when the Nile flooded provided an ample supply of workers for such projects. Pyramid construction did, however, often drain economic resources (i.e. money). Nevertheless, pharonic personifications of God necessitated these constructions. ¹

…In our next lesson we will continue with Greek, Roman, and Hellenic cultures.

Footnotes:

1. Judith G. Coffin and Robert C. Stacy. Western Civilizations, Their History and Their Culture-15^th Ed. WW. Norton Pub. 2005. Pg 38.