There is a continuing debate as to whether or not there was a Renaissance. There has been an expansion of the use of the term since it was first coined. Historians began to speak of a twelfth century renaissance. Soon they added an eleventh century renaissance. Eventually every century seemed to have its own renaissance. Finally scholars reached the conclusion there had never been a Renaissance! This of course makes no sense. The problem is that as a transitional period the Renaissance is not easily identifiable. Economically and politically there are no new breakthroughs. Only in the arts do we find something completely distinct from the Middle Ages. The Renaissance accomplishments in painting, architecture and sculpture are what make this a unique period in human history. It is the rediscovery, extension and reinterpretation of the great artistic achievements of antiquity that justifies calling this age the Renaissance.

Humanism provided the intellectual foundation of the Renaissance. Ancient Greek Humanism attached primary importance to man and his faculties, affairs, aspirations and well being. Italian Humanism added the revival of classical literature and a shift from religious to secular concerns. The founding father of Italian Humanism was Petrarch (Francesco Petrarch, 1304-1374). During 1326 he took minor church orders, which provided him with a living without religious obligations. He was the most important poet and scholar of Europe during this time. He wrote in both Latin and Tuscan. He loved antiquity and had a passion for correct Latin. His favorite author was Cicero. Latin in the Middle Ages was a living, universal language. But it had developed way beyond the language of Ancient Rome. Petrarch began the process of purifying Latin and this ended in the killing of it as a living language. He also had a passion for Classical Greek and was responsible for the introduction of Ancient Greek into Western culture.

Petrarch's work was carried on by Giovanne de Ravenna, who was the best teacher of Latin in Italy. Manuel Chrysaloras (c.1350-1415) was sent by Byzantine Emperor Manuel II as his ambassador to Italy. Chrysaloras was also a Greek historian and he was hired as a professor of Greek in 1393 by the University of Florence. We have a Greek grammar by him and also his translation of Plato and Homer into Latin. This series of events made Florence preeminent in classical studies and the fountainhead of the Renaissance.

The search for ancient manuscripts became a passion in the 15th century. The Council of Constance (1414-1418) sent the Humanists out to find manuscripts. Guarino de Verona found over fifty books in 1408 and Filelfo brought back forty books in 1427. Giovanni Aurispa located 238 books between 1422-1423, including Sophocles, Euripides and Thucydides. Most of what we have today is a result of their work. It represented the rebirth of classical literature.

There was also a political and an economic basis for the Renaissance. Italy was a battle ground between the Pope and the Holy Roman Empire. Towns received liberty charters from one side or the other, that allowed them to elect their rulers, establish justice and coin money. The Pope moved to France for ten years and the Empire weakened. Into the vacuum five powers arose: Naples, Florence, Milan, Venice and the Papal States. Florence became the center of the Early Renaissance.

The rise of Florence as an art center is tied to the Medici family, who were patrons of the arts. By the 14th century the Medici had become very wealthy and were connected with the populace against the nobility. They started in the wool trade, but moved to banking during the 15th century. They had banks in twenty-six other countries and the government of Florence used them as ambassadors.

The Medici's first politician of note was Giovanni De Bicci. By the time he died in 1426, he had made the Medici one of the prime families of Florence. He was a patron of the arts and did not try to break Republican rule. His son Pater Patrial Cosimo replaced him as head of the family. Cosimo wasn't able to consolidate his power until 1434.

The Allizzi family wanted to take control of Florence and began buying people. They were able to convince the government to exile the Medici family. They also wanted to destroy the Republic. The government discovered their plans and drove them out of the city. The government then welcomed the Medici back to Florence.

Cosimo subtly controlled the government by bribing everyone. He also supported the arts, built the famous Medici palace and founded the great Medici Library. The government of Florence left diplomacy to the Medici. Cosimo arranged the movement of the Church Council from Pena to Florence. The significance of this was the arrival of George Gemistus Plethon. By 1438 Byzantium had been reduced to just the city of Constantinople. A mission headed by Patriarch Joseph II arrived in Pena to discuss the reunion of East and West and the possibility of western aid to Constantinople. The mission came to naught, but when the Council moved to Florence it brought many Greek teachers along with it. Plethon was one of these. He had been a important teacher in Greece and was taken up by the nobility of Florence. He founded the famous Platonic Academy of Florence in 1445 and it became the center of Greek and Platonic studies in the West. When Cosimo died in 1464 the Medici were in virtual control of Florence. They were the major patrons of the Humanists, world famous and very rich.

Cosimo had two sons - Piero and Giovanni. Giovanni died and Piero the Gouty became leader of the family in 1464. The Pitti family attempted to overthrow the Medici during the transition of power - but failed. The Medici, however, did not seek revenge. This was unusual at the time and it was seen as a sign of weakness. Piero also had two sons, Giovanni and Lorenzo.

As a result of this apparent lack of will, A complicated plot was fomented against the Medici. Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1484) had his nephew Salviati as Archbishop of Florence ally with the Riario and Pazzi families to destroy the Medici and seize control of Florence. The plan was to kill all of the Medici in the Cathedral of Florence during mass. The Medici would not be armed in church and would be easy to kill. At the Raising of the Host the Riario and Pazzi families attacked and massacred almost all of the Medici. However, Lorenzo got away! The plotters then tried to seize control of the government, but they were defeated by government troops and loyal citizens. The Archbishop was executed and the Riario and Pazzi families were wiped out. Lorenzo was put in direct control of the city by a grateful populace. By 1470 Florence had established itself as the leader in Italy of the letters and arts. Lorenzo led this movement and became known as the Magnificent. He ruled until 1492.

Niccolo Machiavelli's (1469-1527) book "The Prince" provided a realistic guide for rulers to bring order to the chaos of Italian politics. Francis Bacon said, "Machiavelli...wrote what men do, and not what men ought to do." Machiavelli turned his back on the ideal for the real. His is a philosophy of political power without morality. For him the ends justify the means and his end was the unification of Italy. Machiavellianism, a modern political word, came from his philosophy and is defined as the use of cunning and deceitful tactics in politics. He was born in Florence and his father, Bernardo, was an attorney. Niccolo entered the Florentine government as a clerk and ambassador. He was sent on diplomatic missions to France, Spain and the Vatican. Machiavelli witnessed Cesare Borgia's attempts at state-building and thought he might be "The Prince" to unify Italy. He was deposed from office in 1513 for treason and was tortured. However, he withstood the torture and denied involvement in any anti-government plot. Machiavelli was released and retired to his estate.

Machiavelli's "The Prince" offered practical advice to rulers. His chapter on Mixed Principalities recommended, "Anyone who acquires such domains and wants to keep them need concern himself with only two considerations: first, that the bloodline of their former rulers be extinguished; the other, that he alter neither their laws nor their taxes...war is never prevented, but is simply put off to the advantage of others...The desire to acquire is in truth a very natural and ordinary thing...if therefore France had been able to attack Naples...she should have done so..." The chapter about New Principalities Acquired by the Armed Forces of Others and by Fortune tells how after conquering a people you can win them over, "The Duke...installed as Governor Ramiro de Orco, a ruthless and efficient man, bestowing complete power upon him. This man quickly reduced that province to a state of peace and unity...Thereupon the Duke decided that such excessive authority was not necessary, fearing it might become hateful...because he knew that the rigorous measures exercised in the past had generated some hatred toward himself, he wished to remove this sentiment from the minds of those people and win them entirely to himself, by showing them that those measures had been due not to any order of his but to the harsh character of his minister...He caused the body of Ramiro to be found cut in two one morning...the savagery of that spectacle left the people in a state of combined satisfaction and stupefaction." Machiavelli, in his chapter discussing Those Who Come to Power Through Crime, went over the good and bad uses of harshness, "Those cruelties may be called well-used...which are committed at one stroke to make one's own position secure...those are ill-used which... tend rather to increase with time than to diminish or disappear...in seizing a state, the usurper should review all the injuries which it will be necessary for him to commit, and commit them all at once so that he will not have to renew them daily." He states, in The Number of Types of Military Organization and Mercenary Troops, "...there can be no good laws where there are not strong armies, while where the armies are strong the laws will necessarily be good." What a Prince Should do About his Military Forces advised, "A Prince ...should have no...other concern than war... for that is the only art which belongs properly to one who holds ruling power...the prince should peruse histories...of great men...examine the reason for their victories and their defeats...in order to avoid the latter and to imitate the former." In chapters XV to XVIII he posited," Any man who wishes to make a profession of goodness... must inevitably come to ruin among so many men who are not good... a ruler... must learn to be able not to be good...a prince ought not to permit a reputation for cruelty to disturb him, if it is the price of keeping his subjects united and obedient...It is more secure to be feared than loved...his position is strongest when he is feared but not hated...a prince ...must understand how to use the manner proper to the beast as well as that proper to man...the herd is always taken in by appearances and by results." Chapter XIX warns, ...princes cannot escape death at the hands of a fanatic; for anyone who has no fear of death himself can inflict it on another." In chapter XX Machiavelli observed, "By arming your subjects you arm yourself." His chapter on How a Prince Ought to Govern to Gain Reputation stated, "... a prince should seek every means to create in all his actions the image of himself as a great person of exceptional endowments...taking a stand is always better than being neutral...a prince ought also to make it clear that he admires talent and is anxious to honor anyone for outstanding achievement." The next chapter dealt with The Princes Ministers, "... When they are loyal and capable, the prince may be judged wise." Warning the Prince against sycophants was the subject of the following chapter, "The only way to protect yourself against the dangers of adulations is to make men understand that they have nothing to fear from speaking the truth to you...A prince should...always seek advice; but only when he wants it and not when others want to give it." The lesson from "Why the Princes of Italy Have lost Their States was, "Only those defenses are good, sure and dependable, which rest on yourself alone and your own resourcefulness." His final chapter, An Exhortation to Liberate Italy from the Barbarians, quotes the Church, "' For war is just when it is necessary, and the arms in which resides a final hope are holy arms'" Publicly, the Western Political Leadership condemned "The Prince," while privately, they embraced its concepts. The impact of Machiavelli's work resounds to this day!

The Early Renaissance style was developed between 1420-1425 and the artists of Florence were the leaders of this new movement. The founding father of the Renaissance and of Early Renaissance architecture was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446). Brunelleschi began his career as a sculptor. However, he went to Rome in 1402 to study the architectural works of the Ancient Romans and was, as far as we know, the first to measure their buildings. His development of scientific perspective probably evolved from his successful attempt to draw them accurately.

Brunelleschi's discovery was scientific and was very influential on Early Renaissance artists. For the first time since antiquity artists could accurately represent three dimensions on a two- dimensional surface. One could also reverse the process and create a plan from the drawing or painting. Brunelleschi's discovery was written down by Leone Battista Alberti in 1436.

Brunelleschi was commissioned by the Medici in 1419 to add a sacristy to the Romanesque church of San Lorenzo. He so impressed the Medici with his plans that he was asked to redesign the whole structure. His 1420 design marks the starting point of the Early Renaissance and of the Renaissance. Construction began in 1421. The interior was not completed until 1469 and the exterior remains unfinished. It represents the initial artistic expression of the Early Renaissance.

Brunelleschi's plan had a new emphasis on classical symmetry. His concept was to divide the church into square blocks of space. A simple classical approach had replaced the complicated Gothic. When one enters the church they find a beautiful example of scientific perspective. Brunelleschi used the classical style to define the shape of his units. Brunelleschi believed that the Ancient Greeks and Romans knew the secret of correct architecture. He thought that he had rediscovered this secret when he measured the ruins of their buildings. The secret was the harmonic proportions of simple whole numbers. San Lorenzo displays his command of this ancient concept. Brunelleschi's rediscovery gave Renaissance artists a vocabulary and a theory that had not existed since the Fall of Rome.

Donatello (Real name-Donato Di Niccola Bardi, 1386-1466) reestablished the classical approach in sculpture. His "David" (1425-1430) was the first life size free-standing nude statue since antiquity. The helmet of Goliath, with its visor and wings, was meant to identify Goliath with Milan. Powerful Milan had been an enemy of Florence for a quarter of a century. David represented Florence, which was a smaller and weaker city state. The Ancient Greeks and Romans portrayed their heroes and athletes in the nude. Donatello used David's nudity to connect Florence to its ancient Roman past. David's flowered hat and Goliath's military helmet represented peace and war. Donatello used a teenage boy, who might have been Donatello's boyfriend, as his model to emphasize David's weakness. Donatello's "David" also has exaggerated breasts and contrappoto to make him appear effeminate. The bland face and idealistic body also revealed a classical influence.

Masaccio (Real Name- Tommaso Guidi, 1401-1428)was responsible for creating the Early Renaissance style in painting. His first Early Renaissance work was the "Holy Trinity," which he painted in 1425. He was twenty-four and would die at the age of twenty-seven.

Masaccio used classical vocabulary to create this work and the architecture in the painting shows that he had knowledge of Brunelleschi's scientific perspective. The barrel-vaulted chamber represents real space. The figures could theoretically move around inside of this structure.

Massacio provides us with all the information we need to measure the painting's chamber. The perspective point is at eye-level near the foot of the cross. The figures inside the barrel vault are smaller than real life. The donors are outside of the room and are full size. The outward structure of the chamber is also life-size. The barrel vault is seven feet across. The perimeter of the curve over this interval measures eleven feet. The curve is divided by eight square coffers and nine ridges. The coffers are one foot wide and the ridges are four inches. If we apply this data to the interior of the chamber we find that the room is nine feet deep. With this information we can actually draw a floor plan of the chamber! This is why it is referred to as the creation of real space.

The end of the Early Renaissance came with the ascension to power in Florence of Savonarola (1494-1498). Savonarola was a member of the Dominicans and became famous for his preaching. He called on Lorenzo to repent or God would chastise him. Lorenzo ignored his threats. When Lorenzo unexpectedly died, the people of Florence were stunned. Savonarola then told the people of Florence to repent or God would punish them. They didn't pay attention to his warning. However, a French army suddenly appeared and demanded money or it would destroy the city. The people of Florence paid the French to go away and made Savonarola the head of the city. He had paintings and books burned and he encouraged children to spy on their parents. People were not allowed to have sex for half the year and marriage was discouraged. Adultery was punishable by death. In 1498 the people turned on him and burned him at the stake. However, he had by that time destroyed the Early Renaissance in Florence. Artists fled Florence and went to Rome. A new art center beckoned.

Pope Julius II (1503-1513) was a formidable figure and he made Rome the new center of the Renaissance. He acted more like a military man and a politician than a Pope. He ruled the Papal States firmly and led his troops in battle. Julius II wanted to make Rome the dominate power in Italy. He first formed an alliance with France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire against Venice in 1508. Venice was defeated. Next he Allied with Spain, Austria and Venice against France. France was driven out of Italy in 1512. Finally, in 1512 he defeated Florence. Italy was his.

Julius II also wanted to make Rome the cultural center of Western Europe. He gathered all the Humanists and all the major artists to Rome. As a result, all of the arts reached a peak at the Court of Julius II. This period is called the High Renaissance.

The High Renaissance goal was perfection and was related to the Platonic ideal. The High Renaissance concept of perfection was soon placed into written form. The elegance and charm of the court of Guidolbaldo Da Montefeltro was the subject of the book "The Courtier" by Conte Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529). It tells us what a complete gentleman should be. The consummate courtier must be noble and versed in warfare. He must know Greek and Latin and three modern languages. He must be strong and healthy, have grace and be able to play all games with skill. He must know music and all the arts. Lastly, he must be modest. "The Courtier" laid down the rules for the Renaissance man. A man who can do all things well and some things very well. This work also established an educational model. After they developed the concept of the Renaissance man, they began to produce them.

All of the important masterpieces from the High Renaissance were created between 1495 and 1520. The first High Renaissance genius was Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519). Leonardo's "The Last Supper" 1495-1497 is considered the first artistic statement of the ideals of High Renaissance painting. The painting began to peel only twenty years after Leonardo finished it. The most recent restoration was completed in 2003. Leonardo was dissatisfied with the limitations of the fresco technique. Wet plaster dried too fast for his deliberate method of working. He needed an extended period of time to review and change his work. Consequently, he decided to try a new approach. He sealed the wall with pitch, gesso and mastic, and then he painted over this seal with tempera. However, his experiment was a failure and the painting began to flake in 1517. Restorations began in 1726. The entire room is now sealed and climate controlled. Today it is only a shadow of its former glory. What remains, however, is still remarkable. The design is admired for its balance and stability. He achieved this by blending together different themes, forms and personalities. Leonardo first created the figures. The architecture was an afterthought.

Leonardo placed the perspective point in the middle of the painting right behind the head of Christ. The symbolism was on purpose. The projecting pediment on the main opening in the back wall is also symbolically used as a halo. Finally, the observer sees the perspective structure of the painting in relation to the figures, not the architecture.

Leonardo wanted to give several layers of meaning to "The Last Supper." The dramatic moment that is depicted is when Christ has just told the Disciples that one of them would betray him. The Disciples are seen reacting to what Christ has said and in so doing they reveal both their personality and their relationship to Christ. Christ is shown both submitting to God and offering. Leonardo has Christ foreshadowing Christian communion.

Leonardo painted his most famous portrait, "Mona Lisa," from 1503-1507. Six million people a year visit the Louvre to see this work - which is probably the most celebrated painting in world history. Francesco Del Giocondo (1479-1556) commissioned Leonardo to paint his third wife Lisa Gherardini. She was twenty-four at the time and Mona is short for Madonna. Leonardo never delivered the work and at his death it became the property of his last patron, King Francis I of France. It was placed in the Louvre in 1798. A nude version has been lost, although we have copies done by other artists.

 "Mona Lisa" seemed to glow and perfectly captured atmospheric perspective. It astounded Leonardo's contemporaries. Leonardo created this effect with thin veneers of glazes. Layers of varnish were added over the years and by the late 16th century the painting had darkened. An attempt to clean the picture in 1809 removed some of the paint! Today much of the magic has been lost because no one dares to clean the painting for fear of damaging it. From the first everyone has been fascinated with the portrait's mysterious smile. It combines both maternal tenderness with sensuousness.

The smile gives the portrait the ideal quality of serenity. It also provides the concept of an unspoken exchange and creates a feeling of ease. Leonardo used musicians, singers and jesters to make her smile. Additionally, it is a portrait in movement. She is leaning forward and her body is twisted, starting with her legs, which are almost in profile, and concluding with a delicate turn of her head. Her eyes are looking right at us. It is as if we had just entered the room and she is greeting us with a benevolent smile. Consequently, the work harmonizes the conflicting elements of tranquility and the dramatic moment.

 "Mona Lisa" was painted on poplar wood. The wood was first covered with a ground of white alabaster. This established a flat reflecting base. Leonardo next primed the surface with lead white to prevent the ground layer from absorbing too much of the oil. There is evidence of an initial detailed drawing, which was his custom. Landscape and face reveal portions of a preparatory sketch. The sky is blue with a slightly mauve tonality to create atmospheric perspective. He first applied lead white with copper blue and painted over it with lapis lazuli to give it the mauve tint. The flesh tints were put on thinly over the white base. This made the flesh shine as in life. For the clothing he used a deep green copper resonate. Highlights consisted of yellow ochre combined with green. Leonardo's landscape colors covered the spectrum from blue to white. He again used lapis Lazuli for a mauve hue to establish atmospheric perspective. "Mona Lisa" is one of the wonders of the world.

Leonardo thought art was a science. Today he is considered the greatest scientist of his time. He believed the artist must know the laws of nature and he planned a series of essays on art and nature. Unfortunately, he never wrote them. His extensive notes for this project do exist and provide insight into his mind and methods. Leonardo made over fifteen hundred drawings, but only about six hundred survived. Many of these are considered high art. His anatomical sketches have never been equaled.

Leonardo was respected as an architect and even advised Bramante. He was usually called upon to solve design and engineering problems. Leonardo was therefore primarily a theoretical architect. Much of his time was wasted providing entertainments for his employers.

Leonardo's only fault was that he created so few works. This was a result of his perfectionism. He left us only four authenticated paintings ("Virgin of the Rocks" ( 1483-1486), "The Last Supper," "Mona Lisa" and "The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne" (c. 1510). However, they are timeless.

Architect Donato D'Agnolo Bramante (1444-1514) shows the new architectural style in his "Tempietto" or "Little Temple." It is probably the most sublime building of the Renaissance. The "Tempietto" seems much larger than it really is. He used the perfectly symmetrical Roman round temple design as his model. He surrounded it with Doric columns and put a dome on top of it. The fact that this design wasn't suited for Christian ritual didn't bother him. The "Tempietto" is the first of the artistic achievements that made Rome the center of Italian art.

Pope Julius II decided to replace the old St. Peter's and he awarded the commission to Bramante. His original 1506 plan is known only from a sketch and from the medal honoring the beginning of the construction. He said he would "... place the Pantheon on top of the Basilica of Constantine." Bramante conceived a centralized Greek cross with four indistinguishable facades and chapels. He decided to use concrete, which had not been used since the Fall of Rome, to save money. When Bramante died only the four crossing piers had been built. For thirty years other architects worked on St. Peter's and changed the design. Michelangelo took over in 1546 and he returned to Bramante's centralized plan. However, the finished work is a representation of Michelangelo's ideas.

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) saw himself as a divinely inspired genius. He never doubted his ability or his artistic choices. Michelangelo believed that as a sculptor he was a "maker of men."

Michelangelo's "the David," is the earliest large statue of the High Renaissance. Commissioned in 1501, when he was 26, it was supposed to be placed on one of the buttresses of the cathedral. The city instead decided to put it in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, as a symbol of the Florentine Republic. It has since been replaced by a modern copy. Michelangelo didn't include the head of Goliath in his work. He wanted it to represent heroic virtue. "The David" is both calm and tense. It reveals David contemplating what he is about to do- confront Goliath.

Julius II hired Michelangelo to create the sculptural plan for his tomb. However, he stopped work on the tomb and commissioned Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of "the Sistine Chapel." Michelangelo completed the entire ceiling in four years (1508-1512), because he wanted to return to his work on the tomb. The ceiling is 130 feet by 45 feet and has 323 figures. He created one of the great masterpieces of art history. The work has its figures rhythmically apportioned within the painted architectural construct. Nothing before it came close to its monumentality and concept.

The central portion includes nine scenes from Genesis. Michelangelo ties together creation, salvation and judgment.

"The Creation of Adam" reveals the transfer of the spark of life and consequently connects man and God. Also, Adam looks not only toward God, but toward Eve as she is cradled by God's left arm.

Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) was a man of the world and he was thus the mirror image of Michelangelo's lonely genius. Raphael is considered to be the most important painter of the High Renaissance. He wasn't known as an innovator, however what he was able to do was to synthesize the achievements of Leonardo, Bramante and Michelangelo into his own style. He was the perfect High Renaissance painter.

"The School of Athens" is renown as Raphael's most sublime creation. It also embodies the classical approach of the High Renaissance. Ancient Greek philosophy is his theme. Plato and Aristotle are encircled by Greek philosophers. Each philosopher is posed to reveal their specialty and point of view.

This work also reflects Raphael's amalgamation of the art of Michelangelo, Leonardo and Bramante, and brings to a climax the whole development of Renaissance painting. His figures display Michelangelo's energy, power and drama. Michelangelo was aware of his influence on Raphael and he considered it artistic theft. Raphael's design for "The School of Athens" was inspired by Leonardo's "Last Supper" and his philosophers are made to reveal themselves in the same way that Leonardo has his disciples reveal themselves. Raphael also used Leonardo's rhythmic placement of figures and balanced design. His painted architecture is clearly influenced by Bramante's design of Saint Peter's and we know that Bramante advised Raphael on this work. Raphael has blended the three different styles together beautifully. Finally, the painting's precision of perspective and monumentality perfect the Renaissance style of painting started by Masaccio.

Different reasons have been given for the end of the Renaissance. Some historians point to the beginning of the Reformation in 1517 and the collapse of political and religious order. Others emphasize that Bramante, Leonardo and Raphael were all dead by 1520 and that Michelangelo had drifted into a new style. The direct cause, however, was the destruction of the artistic center in Rome. During 1527 a rogue army from Germany moved in and occupied Rome. They settled in for months - raping and murdering. Pope Clement VII (1523-1534), the artists and half the population fled. For whatever reason, a great period of human achievement had come to an end.